摘 要：道教名山是承载道教理想、修仙实践、组织发展、传播信仰的根基。基于中国道教不同发展阶段的教义教理和信仰实践特点，系统总结道教发展对中国名山风景资源的探索、发现、评价、保护、利用和加强的影响。道教自身发展历程及其社会地位的波动影响了道教名山风景区的建设和利用，对中国传统社会和文化产生了深远影响，到封建社会中晚期，道教名山的风景建设、旅游建设与宗教建设更加相互影响，紧密结合。
关 键 词：风景园林；道教名山；风景名胜；历史
文章编号：1000-6664(2016)08-0085-06
中图分类号：TU 986
文献标志码：A
收稿日期：2015-07-24；
修回日期：2015-12-05
基金项目：中央高校基本科研业务费专项资金(编号2662015PY50)资助
Abstract: Historic mountains, especially where paradises are, are the foundation for carrying Taoism, Cultivation practices, organizational development, and missionary work. Based on different development stages of theoretical system and religious practice of Chinese Taoist features, the paper systematically summed up its influence on exploration, discovery, evaluation, protection, strengthening and utilization of China,s famous mountains' landscape resources. Taoism,s development process and its social status fluctuations have profound impact on the formation and development of famous mountains' pattern and traditional Chinese society and culture. To the late feudal society, famous mountains' landscape construction, tourism development and religious development influence and combine each other closely.
Key words: landscape architecture; Taoist mountain; scenic spot; history
中国是世界上最早把山岳作为风景资源来开发的国家，山岳风景名胜区也是我国目前风景名胜区中数量最多的一种类型，截止到2014年，225处国家级风景名胜区中有103处为山岳型，占总数的45.8%[1]，其中宗教名山因其悠久的历史、丰富的文化内涵和天人谐和的寺、观建筑等重要的人文特征成为我国风景名胜区的重要类别。周维权先生认为“宗教名山是从山岳自然崇拜演变为集信仰、审美、科学、政治等多种文化和思想的主要载体”，就规划格局而言，“道教名山风景的总体布局相比佛教名山更为严谨和有序一些，其寺观总体布局的全部或者其中一部分通过规划来实现完整的宗教意图，突出名山的宗教特色，更自觉地把宗教建设与风景建设结合起来”[2]。
西方学者百年前就开始关注中国的名山，一些汉学家较早注意到中国的圣山、神山现象以及中国传统艺术中有宗教含义的山岳景观。其中比较有影响力的是法国汉学家沙碗(E. Chavannes)1910年对泰山作了全面的研究，1919年又向西方介绍了道教三十六洞天和七十二福地。另外一位法国汉学家戴密微(Paul Demiéville)研究了泰山及舍身崖，对中国诗歌中的山岳风景现象也作了相关研究[3]。薛爱华(Edward Hetzel Schafer)对茅山作了全面研究[4-6]，韩涛(Thomas H. Hahn)研究了道教名山和相关的宗教地理特征[7]；雷德侯(Lothar Ledderose)研究了中国风景艺术中的宗教成分[8]。在《中国的朝圣和圣地》一书中，杜德桥(Glen Dudbridge)和吴佩宜(Pei-yi Wu)研究了17世纪泰山的朝山进香活动[9-10]，吉梅洛(Robert M. Gimello)、于君芳(Chun-fung Yu)、劳格文(John lagerwey)、韩书瑞(Susan Naquin)分别研究了五台山[11]、普陀山[12]、武当山[13]和妙峰山[14]的朝山进香活动及其相关仪式、信仰、香客、绘画等。美国罗彻斯特大学的赵昕毅(Shin-Yi Chao)教授系统梳理了从宋到元时期真武崇拜与武当山的开发建设[15]。
西方学者对中国的名山研究主要集中于个案，多从宗教、社会以及绘画、文学等艺术角度介入，从风景科学的角度对名山进行系统研究的是周维权先生和谢凝高先生。周先生的专著《中国名山风景区》从物质、精神和社会等方面分析和认识名山风景区的基本属性，将宗教名山作为整体概念进行研究，内容上对佛教名山和道教名山各有涉及。谢先生的《名山·风景·遗产》是个人多年理论和实践工作的总结，研究了名山的发展、演变及审美，强调自然风景与园林是有区别的，前者是源，后者是流，“只有明白各自的特点，才不会用造园的手法乃至城市建设施工的技法去搞风景名山的建设”[16]。
除此之外，王子超、王克陵以“洞天福地”的理论构架和地理分布研究了道教对名山风景区的探索与影响[17]，宋峰分析了帝王和儒、释、道等指导名山营建的文化背景与其建筑理念，总结了中国名山风景建筑与其所在环境从总布局到宏观、中观、微观的处理方式[18]。在名山个案研究方面，除相关风景名胜区规划与实践外，目前仍然是旅游学科和宗教学方面的研究较多，近年来对名山风景研究有所增加，其中以泰山的相关研究较为集中[19-20]，其他名山如华山、峨眉山、五台山、王屋山、崆峒山、武当山、龙虎山等，有少量研究文献。总体而言，目前传统名山风景的研究与名山在中国国土的分布范围、分布面积以及在我国风景旅游建设中所处的地位不相符，研究成果严重不足。
作为中国土生土长的宗教，道教对中国名山风景的开发和建设影响深远。道教以长生久视，修道成仙为主要追求，崇山意识显著。古仙字有僊、仚2种写法，《释名·释长幼》云“老而不死曰仙。仙，遷也，遷入山也，故其制字，人傍作山也”；《说文·人部》也解释“仚，人在山上，从人，从山”，都说明了“仙”字的来历是基于人与山的密切关系。闻一多先生在《神仙考》一文中也详细解释了仙字的来历：“仙字本作僊字，《说文》‘䙴西，升高也’，䙴即仙字……升去谓之僊，动词名化，则升去的人也谓之仙。西方人相信天就在他们那昆仑山上，升天也就是升山，所以僊字别体作仙”[21]。纵观道教的产生和发展历程，无论是思想理论体系还是宗教信仰的实践活动，都与崇山意识及相应的名山风景资源的探索、发现、评价、保护、加强和利用等活动密不可分，互相影响，彼此融合。因此笔者试图在周维权先生《中国名山风景区》的基础上，以道教关于山岳资源开发利用的理论和实践概要为线索，基于道教发展历史和建设历程专以探讨中国道教名山风景区的发展历程，以补充和深化相关研究。
1 道教创建和改造期：入山合丹与名山风景资源的探索和发现
从张陵创教到魏晋南北朝，是道教的创建和改造时期①，以秦汉时期的宗天神学和谶纬神学融合古老的鬼神崇拜、神仙思想、黄老思潮为思想理论渊源。基于原始的山岳崇拜和山川鬼神思想继承和发展了昆仑神话、蓬莱神话这两大神话体系，通过天人感应理论和谶纬、祠祀等形式实现了山岳崇拜和祀奉的理论化、神圣化和宗教化。
东晋葛洪在《抱朴子内篇》中系统总结了战国以来神仙方术的理论，为道教建立了完整的成仙理论，并详细阐述了“名山”对“合丹”修仙的重要性，“合丹当于名山之中”“是以古之道士，合作神药，必入名山，……又按仙经，可以精思合作仙药者，有华山、泰山、霍山、恒山、嵩山……括苍山”[22]。作为道教史上承前启后的重要典籍，《抱朴子内篇》对“名山”的认识不仅是自古以来崇山意识的反映和总结，更强调了名山与修道、合药的关系，对后世影响深远。此时期亦有大量的“岩穴之士”隐居修道，栖身岩穴洞室追求长生和成仙。这些求道之士以宗教为目的进行山水探险与隐修栖岩活动，实际上也对山水风景的发现和利用起到一定的作用。汉灵帝时期的知识分子领袖郭泰“岩栖归神，咀嚼元气，以修伯阳、彭祖之术”[23]；台佟“隐于武安山，凿穴为居，采药自业”；矫慎“少好黄老，隐遁山谷，因穴为室”[24]；道士王嘉初隐于东阳谷，凿崖穴居，弟子数百人，亦皆穴处，后潜隐于终南山，结庵庐而居，门人闻而复随之，乃迁于倒兽山[25]；道士张忠隐于泰山，“其居依崇岩幽谷，凿地为窟室”[25]；道士许迈“立精舍于悬霤，而往来茅岭之洞室”[25]等。东晋衣冠南渡，道教传播于世胄高门，崇道名士也促成了对名山风景的认识和开发，如王羲之“与道士许迈共修服食，采药石不远千里，偏游东中诸郡，穷诸名山”[25]；嵇康“尝采药游山泽”“游于汲都山中，遇道士孙登，遂与之游”[26]。出生于“王谢家族”的谢灵运同样信仰道教，遍访名山；葛洪本人也出自江南贵族世家，杭州地方志多处记载有葛洪炼丹合药的遗迹，如灵隐天竺、龙井、葛岭等[27]，都是现今著名的风景名胜地。这些名士岩栖采药，穷诸名山的活动，既是先秦隐逸思想的继承和发展，又成为后世崇道、修真、合药的行为典范，而从风景名胜的角度来看，不但进行了山岳风景资源的调查，而且更重要的是其行为活动本身为名山留下了丰富的历史遗迹，也成为后世名山风景建设的重要人文历史资源。
2 道教兴盛和发展期：洞天福地体系定格，名山修仙和宫观建设高潮
隋唐至北宋时期是道教的兴盛和发展期，统治者奉行崇道政策，促进了道教理论向理性发展，新的教义讲究清净恬淡，守气养性，推进了养炼理论和内丹道的成长，促进了“士流道教”的形成，在更高层次上激发了人们返璞归真，追求山林野趣的热情，道教势力向山林发展，名山道教进入了高速发展时期，名山宫观大量修建，道教理想和实践与名山开发建设联系更加紧密，这一时期最具典型意义的是“洞天福地”名山体系的成熟和定格。
“洞天福地”理论反映了道教的根本宇宙构成论和空间观，是神仙思想和仙境说的直接体现。“洞天福地”思想起源于原始的洞穴崇拜和圣山崇拜，经过历代的形成和演变，由唐朝司马承祯根据葛洪的《抱朴子内篇》及早期道经有关福地的内容综合而成完整体系[28]，之后道派各家评品天下名山皆以此类结构排序，但列入洞天福地的各名山略有不同，其中以司马承祯的《天宫地府图》、前蜀杜光庭的《洞天福地岳渎名山记》、宋代李思聪的《洞渊集》和张君房的《云笈七签》影响最广。道教认为天地万物皆一气所分，仙境也是“结气所成”，不仅天上有仙山仙境，地上与海中也有仙山仙境。天上的仙山为真气所化，又各对应天下名山宫府。据《洞天福地岳渎名山记》记载，天上仙山以玄都玉京山为中心主轴，位于大罗天及三清之境；海上仙山则以中岳昆仑山为中心；而地上仙境洞天福地等道教名山也都有神仙所理，这些名山包括“中国五岳”“十大洞天”等，十大洞天、五岳皆高真上仙主统，以福天下，以统众神①。
统计“洞天福地”的地理分布和发展历史不难发现，这些被认为地上仙境的道教名山实际与其风景特征和风景资源的认知及人为开发利用密切相关，以《云笈七签》所记载的洞天福地为例，总共118处，除地望不详的8处外，其地理分布以浙江省最多为29处，湖南第二18处，江西第三17处，江苏、四川、陕西、福建各6处，河南5处，广西4处，广东和安徽各3处，山东、河北、湖北各1处。这些洞天福地绝大多数都在山岳之中，有的甚至直接作为山岳的代称，反映了唐代道教名山的分布情况，相当于当时的“名山谱”[29]。从风景地貌特征来看，这些山体处于低山丘陵，尤其是江南丘陵地区，为目前国家级和省级风景名胜区最多的地区。而江南丘陵又正是汉魏六朝道教活动、名士探险旅行隐修最多频次的地方。 上佳的景观地貌区与名士频繁的活动区结合，可以说洞天福地的形成是基于对名山风景资源认识和利用的结果，“道教洞天福地的评定与规范，建构了中国风景名山的系统框架结构”[17]，为中国山水文化的形成与发展，尤其是对名山风景资源的评价和利用作出了巨大贡献。
唐代道教的政治色彩浓厚，“国教化”的倾向突出，后妃公主出家入道，王公显宦舍宅为观，贵人名流循迹山林，高士才子崇尚修仙的现象十分普遍。由于道教的教团组织和宫观体制到唐代已臻于完善，实施丛林经济制度以后，宫观已成为可自给自足的经济实体，宫观建设得以大量向山野风景地带发展，修仙实践活动与名山开发建设愈加紧密相连，道教在名山的建设活动达到顶峰。五岳崇拜此时期被纳入道教规仪，宫观建设活动兴盛。据《旧唐书》记载，唐玄宗采纳司马承祯所言，在五岳分置道观，以道教斋醮仪范为五岳祭祀法式，确立了五岳崇拜中的道教正统地位，意义重大。东岳泰山，三十六洞天之第二洞天，被道教视为神仙所居之洞府和道士理想的修行地。早在战国时期就有道家在泰山活动，唐代更有张炼师、吕洞宾、张仙等著名道士在此修仙。唐宋时期，朝廷崇道给泰山神以种种封号，宋真宗封碧霞元君以后，泰山道教发展到顶峰。虽然佛教在泰山的兴起历史也很早，但势力始终没有道教大，道教的兴盛和雄伟壮丽的自然风景吸引了大量的游客和香客，每年拜岳朝山者数十万众，而文人墨客留下了大量诗文、游记、墨迹和摩崖石刻，如杜甫《望岳》等著名诗篇。十大洞天之第一洞天王屋山，道教建筑群的兴建始于隋文帝开皇二年(582年)，唐代司马承祯和玉真公主奉旨来王屋山栖居修道，王屋山“三宫”之紫微宫、阳台宫、清虚宫以及迎恩宫、奉仙观、灵都万寿宫、麻姑庙、十方院、药王祠等其它重要宫观庙宇均始建于唐代，奠定了王屋山风景名胜的宫观建筑格局。宋代皇帝信仰道教，宋徽宗更是以“教主道君皇帝”自称，曾“令洞天福地修建宫观，塑造圣像”[30]，名山宫观得到进一步发展。总的来说，如今分布在全国各地的传统名山风景除了一部分是在两晋南北朝基础上充实、完善之外，余者几乎都是开发于唐宋而形成一定的区域格局。这期间名山的宗教、风景、环境的内涵进一步得到综合和充实，提高到更为完善的境界，把名山风景文化推向更高水平。
“五岳寻仙不辞远，一生好入名山游”[31]，李白的诗句是当时士人游仙的行为风尚的写照。唐宋时期大量文人名流在道教和禅宗思想的影响下，游山和山居活动较之魏晋南北朝时期更为普遍和活跃。其时司马承祯影响了包括李白、孟浩然、王维等许多著名文人，并被后人称为“仙宗十友”②。李白是正式受过符箓的道士，早年未离蜀时，曾隐居岷山学道。离蜀后，先结识司马承祯，后又与当时著名道士吴筠亦相友。李白潜心于内、外丹术，据他自述：“吾与霞子元丹，烟子元演，气激道合，结神仙交，殊身同心，誓老云海，不可夺也。历行天下，周求名山”[32]。李白还曾到嵩山访传说中的炼丹仙师焦炼师，虔诚地访道少室，尽登三十六峰，“十五游神仙，仙游未曾歇”[33]，李白游山寻仙活动堪称文人名流中的典型，反映了当时知识界的社会风气、时代思潮和文化背景，也反映了道教名山对知识分子郊游出行的吸引力。
3 道教分立和发展期：宫宇示教高潮，道教名山风景名胜的范式成熟
南宋以后，道教经历宗派纷起到元代正式分为正一和全真两大宗派到明代继续流传。全真道和正一道由于分别受到元、明时期统治者的支持而盛极一时。兴起于金元时期的全真道融合和吸收禅宗与新儒学思想高标三教合一，继承钟吕内丹学以成仙证真为宗教信仰追求，对传统道教从教理教义到教团组织、宫观制度、修行方式、斋醮仪式以及终极追求等进行了全面改革和维新，并在丘处机万里西行面见成吉思汗后，迅猛发展进入鼎盛时期，一时全真宫观遍布北方，道徒充塞山薮，最终形成了“北全真、南正一”的道教宗派新格局。正一道在南宋时渐趋盛大，经“三山合一”①后，诸符箓以龙虎宗为核心组成正一大派，成为官方指定的道教诸派统领。由于正一道以斋醮祈禳为职事，宗教行事与民俗联系紧密，所起作用较全真更大，更适应王朝统治者利用神道设教以行伦理教化的需要，因而更受明室的青睐，到世宗朝，符箓方术之士更为贵显，不少道徒深入宫廷参与朝政，致使“天下士大夫靡然从风”[34]，从而使道教对明代的政治和社会的各个方面产生了广泛而深刻的影响。“非宫宇则无以示教，非山水则无以远俗”[35]，此时期道教名山得到进一步的开发、更新和扩充，名山作为风景名胜地的游览功能得到加强。主要表现为以下两点。
1)名山旧有宫观建筑的普遍更新和扩充。全真教特别强调“以修身养性为功，以立观度人为行”[36]，建立了道士出家、云游、住庵制度，建宫立观成为传教的首选要务，因此一方面必选风水顺畅，林木繁茂，高迥闲旷之地营建宫观以便怡神静心，炼气葆形，修身养性；另一方面十分注重接管、修复传统道教的名宫大观，并在原址上重修、扩建或改建，重视在全真祖师们诞生、修真、升仙之地创建纪念性的巍峨道宫，建成祖师崇拜圣地，围绕这些大宫又建有许多大、中、小观庵，形成宫观群，构成名山区域范围内的寺观分布的总体格局，既弘扬教门，正宗师真传统，又集中、调动教内精英和财力、物力，使教门声名远播。元代全真教发展的顶峰时期，在长江以北广大地区进行了大规模的建观收徒活动，全真道士必须出家的教规使得道士需要广建宫观，以作为修道、祈祷、生活、养老等的场所。据景安宁研究，仅《披云真人门下法派名氏》碑文列出的宋德方法系门人就建有222个宫、观、庵、庙、阁等。当时著名的大宫观除全真教三大祖庭外，王屋山天坛紫微宫、赤城县金阁山崇真观、文登昆仑山东华宫、秦州天靖山玉泉观等都是著名的大宫观[37]。至明代，由于皇帝崇祀真武，永乐大建武当山，嘉靖进一步增建，受真武崇拜和武当山宫观模式影响，亦有数量众多的名山被改建、增建真武殿，甚至改变了原有祀奉主题，营建真武道场。如崆峒山，本以皇帝问道广成子而著名，秦汉时期即有道教活动，唐代崆峒山道宫开始兴建，宋代由皇帝下旨全面营建崆峒宫观。而明代重修崆峒山真武殿，并以此为中心仿武当山布局大建宫观，“初明成祖崇祀真武，寺宇因改建真武，照依武当山，以三月三日为朝山之期”[38]，崆峒山祀奉主题由原来的皇帝道场、道教渊源变为真武大帝道场，其建筑格局在明代基本奠定。
2)宫观建筑群的统一规划建设，道教名山风景范式的成熟。明成祖以藩王篡夺皇位，为安抚人心，标榜自己“君权神授”的合法地位，宣称“奉天靖难，神明显助”，因而在真武修炼飞升的武当山“创建宫观，报答神惠”，利用真武修炼飞升的传说将山水空间和建筑空间对应组合，形成了人、地、天序列构思的道教名山格局[39]，成为后世道教山岳风景建设争相效法的规划范式。如齐云山，明永乐后道教逐渐兴盛，至明嘉靖(1522—1566年)、万历(1573—1620年)年间发展到鼎盛时期，兴建宫、观、祠、殿及神仙洞府百余处，其宫殿建筑、道规道制亦多仿效武当山，如依崖建玉虚宫、治世仁威宫、天乙真庆宫，建静乐宫于桃花涧，建榔梅庵等，武当一名太和，齐云亦名中和，齐云山因此被古人称为“江南小武当”[40]。除此之外，吕梁北武当山、邢台北武当山、襄阳真武山、宜宾真武山、丛罗峪真武山等相当数量的大小道教名山不但在建筑和景观格局上模仿武当山，而且山也纷纷更名或俗称为“真武山”“小武当”等。
4 道教逐渐衰落期：民间信仰活跃促进名山旅游和地方性名山风景建设
明中叶以后，道教逐渐进入衰落时期，一方面道教自身缺乏创新，另一方面清代统治者重视佛教，对道教采取抑制和利用的态度。道教在上层阶级的地位逐步下降，但民间的道教信仰仍很活跃，除少量宫观由皇帝敕建或敕修外，由民间出资重修、修缮、新建宫观的活动非常普遍，但单体规模和规格都不如道教全盛时期，并且由于时局等原因，名山风景开发利用的起伏波折较大，总体呈逐渐衰减之势。此时期需特别注意的是民间信仰的炽热和社会风气的转变导致大规模的朝山进香活动，既促进了风景名胜旅游的发展也推动了全国性名山及地方性名山的建设。名山道观不仅是旅游胜地，也是文人士大夫乃至民间百姓的旅舍客栈。
朝山进香习俗经过唐宋发展到明代中后期，已经成为全国普遍存在的现象，民众在朝山进香过程中往往也饱览风景增长见闻，因此香火旺盛的宗教道场，也是著名的旅游胜地。晚明社会风气的转变，使得旅游成为民众普遍的风尚，烧香谒神本是宗教的礼仪，但在明中叶以后已成为普通百姓旅游的借口，“出于衷心之贶者，固非徒慕其名胜以为游览盛事”①，平民百姓不能如士大夫一样有经济实力可游览名山大川，他们辛劳一生所攒的钱财，也许只能供一次远出烧香，这就决定了“他们在烧香路上，除了虔诚的宗教情感之外，难免会借助山水享受娱乐”[41]，因此“这烧香，一为积福，一为看景逍遥”[42]，进香成为平民百姓，尤其是女性增长社会见识、扩大地理视野、观光游览的重要且几乎是唯一的方式[43]。关于明清时期民众朝山进香的盛况，梅莉作了较详细的研究[44]，此外可见杜德桥(Glen Dudbridge)[9]和劳格文(John lagerwey)的研究[13]。因为民众大规模朝山进香，相关的旅游接待和食宿服务得到大的发展。士绅大户为方便本族人员进香，往往在名山脚下建观、庙、庵、堂，既作为祝禧家庙又为旅人提供方便的食宿。名山寺观也面向民众开放有专门接待香客和游客的场所并经营食宿，形成了“旅庙合一”的格局，同时香火旺盛的名山寺观周围往往有民间经营的店肆比邻而建，形成“买卖街”或旅游集镇，促进了名山风景地的旅游建设。
受时局影响以及农忙、个人经济或身体等原因，有大量香客无法亲自到全国性的圣山朝拜进香，只好退而求其次就近朝拜，因而居住地附近的宫观兴盛起来，推动了地方性名山的开发和建设。例如明后期至清随着真武信仰在民间的影响力加大，武当山成为真武朝拜的中心，各地仿武当供奉真武的宫观建设炽盛，据不完全统计，祀奉真武而以“武当山”为中心所建设的地方性道教名山往往在山名或别名上冠以“小武当”“北武当”“南武当”“亚武当”“小顶”“北顶”“北小顶”“西顶”等，涉及青海、甘肃、陕西、山西、河北、河南、湖北、四川、湖南、江西、浙江、福建、广东、贵州等多个省份[45]。如山西汾阳石盘山，由于明崇祯十四年(1641年)李自成、张献忠义军战乱，汾阳人南谒湖北武当山受阻，后由郡中贤达游说士绅官员支持于清康熙二年(1663年)建成玄天上帝庙宇群，建筑总面积60 000多m2，是当时华北最大的道教庙宇群，因此石盘山亦称西顶、金顶、老爷山。又如四川长龙山天仙观，在清嘉庆年间已是闻名遐迩，香火鼎盛，信众如织，当地人称“川武当”，把历史上祀天仙公主的祠堂演变为供奉真武的道观。青海大通县元朔山于万历天启年间建真武殿崇祀真武，以北武当山命名；江西龙南县武当山(小武当山)明崇祯年间始建武当圣庙，清乾隆三十四年(1769年)重修；河北平山县天桂山(北武当山)于明末清初大兴土木，建天桂胜境；甘肃金昌的金山(北武当山)始建于清乾隆以前，至光绪年间逐步完善形成完整的道教建筑群落；湖北长阳天柱山(中武当山)在清朝同治年间仿武当山建设宫观建筑群等。据乾隆时期的《新修怀庆府志》记载，温县城外西南的元帝庙“俗名小顶”、济源县金炉山上的真武庙“俗呼小北顶”、修武县覆釜山元帝庙“即今之小北顶”等等。“览九域之名山，奉真武者十之七八”[46]，可见当时真武崇祀的影响和宫观建设的兴盛。此外，泰山的情形也是一样，明清时碧霞元君的影响日益扩大，祀元君的庙宇也从泰山扩展到全国各地，碧霞元君信仰遍及大半个中国，元君庙、泰山庙在北方尤盛。《帝京景物略》云：“后祠日加广，香火自邹鲁齐秦以至晋冀，祠在北京者，称泰山顶上天仙圣母……麦庄桥北，曰西顶；草桥曰中顶；东直门外，曰东顶；安定门外，曰北顶”，文中更详细记述了四月十八日元君诞辰，士女进香的盛况[47]。时至今日留存的大型元君庙除泰山外还有山西太原、山西晋城、山西蒲县、山西万荣、河南鹤壁、陕西西安等多处，写仿碧霞元君祠庙的名胜可见一斑。“今时最崇重者大岳太和山真武及岱岳碧霞元君”[47]，因此，当年伊东忠太来到中国所看到的情形是：“道观及属于道教的普通庙祠遍布全国各地，其数目之多亦难以确计，举凡稍具都邑形态之处，必可见数座乃至数十座庙祠，在大城市里几乎都有大规模的道观存在”，根据他的观察：“在人口超过数万的城市，市内的宗教建筑中，属于道教的约占70%~80%，与佛教有关的建筑约占15%~20%，其余则属于伊斯兰教和基督教等的建筑”，因此伊东忠太下结论说“可以想见，道教是如何深入人心”[48]。
5 结语
从上述各时期道教的发展历程可以发现，道教理论和实践与早期山岳风景的认识和开发联系紧密，道教自身发展历程及其社会地位的波动深刻影响了道教名山风景的建设和利用，道教名山不仅是承载道教理想、修仙实践、组织发展、传播信仰的根基，也是风景建设、旅游建设与宗教建设协同发展下的结果。早期道教对山岳风景资源的认识和开发主要基于入山修仙理论和实践，魏晋时期大批名士继承和发展了先秦隐逸思想，穷诸名山的活动既进行了山岳风景资源的调查又创造了名山丰富的人文历史景观。唐宋时期道教受皇室和士流推崇，道教“洞天福地”名山风景体系成熟，名山宫观大量修建，修仙实践活动与道教名山风景建设紧密相连，道教名山风景对知识分子有显著吸引力。到元明时期，道教名山风景象征天、地、人的典型三段式空间格局成熟并被广泛写仿和继承，其时名山的风景建设、旅游建设与宗教建设更加相互影响，紧密结合，对中国传统社会和文化产生了深刻影响。在封建社会的晚期，虽然道教本身已逐渐衰落，失去了在统治者和士流中的地位，但民间信仰和宫观建设活动仍然兴盛，以致近代中国城市和乡村的地方性名山建设仍然十分普遍，朝山旅游现象仍十分常见。需注意的是，虽然道教对名山的开发要早于佛教，但中国历史上多次出现佛道相争现象，佛道在此过程中相互借鉴、融合，一山由某一宗教独据的现象逐渐改变，传统的道教名山往往也建有佛寺，有些名山道、释并存或先后占据主导，共同促进了名山的风景建设、旅游建设。
致谢：本文在撰写过程中得到北京林业大学孟兆祯院士的悉心指导，特此感谢！
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作者简介：
杜 雁/1972年生/女/湖北长阳人/博士/华中农业大学园艺林学学院风景园林系副教授/研究方向为风景园林历史与理论 (武汉 430070)
Review of the Origin and Development of Historical Scenic Spots of Taoist Mountains
DU Yan
China is the first country to develop mountains as landscape resources in the world. Famous religious mountain is an essential category among China's scenic areas for its important cultural characteristics, such as long history, rich culture connotation, temple buildings showing the harmony between man and nature, etc.
1 Creation and Transformation of Taoism
Zhang Lin created the Taosim, the theoretical origin of which were Zongtian (宗天) theology and Chenwei (谶纬) theology in Qin and Han Dynasties period, combined with ancient ghosts and deities worship, belief of immortal and Huang-Lao thought, and Taosim was developed and transformed during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. Through the theory of interaction between Heaven and Man, and means of Chenwei, sacrifice, the original worship of mountains and the thoughts of mountains' ghosts and deities, which inherited and developed the two great mythologies of Kunlun and Penglai, realized the theorization, sanctification and religionization of worship of both mountain and ancestors.
In the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Ge Hong's elaborated the importance of "well-known mountains" to "making pellets for immortality" in Baopuzi Neipian (《抱朴子内篇》), which emphasized the relationship among well-known mountains, monasticism and making pellets for immortality, generating a far-reaching impact on future generations. During this period, there were many hermits in monastic seclusion, living in rock caverns and pursuing longevity and immortality, intellectuals such as Guo Tai, Tai Tong, Jiao Shen, Wang Jia, Zhang Zhong, Xu Mai, etc. Taoism luminaries like Wang Xizhi and Ji Kang, could be described as "collecting medicinal herbs regardless of long journeys, preferring travelling counties in the east, and visiting famous mountains as many as they can". Such activities were inherited and developed from pre-Qin's hermit thoughts, becoming behavioral paradigm of worshiping Taoism, while from the perspective of scenic points, surveys for mountain landscape resource were conducted and the activities themselves left rich cultural and historical resources behind.
2 Prosperity and Development of Taoism
Rulers pursued the worshiping Taoism policies from Sui and Tang Dynasties to the Northern Song Dynasty, which combined and enriched the connotation of religion, landscape, environment of the Taoist mountains. Famous mountains' landscape culture came to a higher level.
(1) Taoist ideal and practice were linked more tightly with famous mountains' development and construction. During this period, the mature of famous mountains system of "Dongtian Fudi" (洞天福地) is significant and typical. Theory of "Dongtian Fudi" reflects Taoist theory of space and the fundamental universe composition and it directly embodies the thoughts of immortals and the wonderland. By analyzing the statistics of geographical distribution and development history of "Dongtian Fudi", we can easily find that Taoism famous mountains, which are considered to be the wonderland on the earth, linked tightly with the acknowledgement of landscape features and human development and utilization. Take "Yun Ji Qi Qian" (云笈七签) as an example, it recorded "Dongtian Fudi" in a total of 118, besides 8 unknown locations, Zhejiang Province ranked first with total number of 29 spots, Hunan Province ranked second with 18 spots, Jiangxi Province ranked third with 17 spots. These "Dongtian Fudi" mainly lie in the mountains, some of which are the antonomasia of mountains. From the view of the characteristics of natural geomorphology, these mountains are in the low hills, which are in both good landscape landform areas and celebrities frequent activity areas. These areas are exactly the busiest places where Taoist activities happened and celebrities would like to travel during the Han, Wei and Six Dynasties. Especially the hilly region of south of the Yangtze river has the largest amount of the national and provincial level scenic spots.
(2) The established of Taoist orthodox position of the worship of China's five great mountains. Taoist religious organization and Temple system attained perfection in the Tang Dynasty, temple had become a self-sufficient economic entity and lots of them expanded to wild landscape areas.
According to the Jiu Tang Shu (《旧唐书》) recorded that Emperor Xuanzong of Tang adopted Sima Chengzhen's suggestions to set the temples in the five mountains respectively and set Taoist rituals as the ritual of the Five Sacred Mountains. It established the Five Sacred Mountains of Taoism worship legitimacy and had great significance. Emperor had the belief in Taoism in the Song Dynasty, Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty represented himself as "the Taoist leader emperor" (教主道君皇帝), and "built temples and shaped the icon in the Dongtian Fudi", which made the temple of famous mountain had a further development. Therefore, part of scenic spots distributed in the traditional scenic mountains across the country is fleshed out on the basis of Wei and Jin Dynasties, and most of the rest have developed in the Tang and Song and formed a certain regional pattern.
( 3 ) I t w a s m u c h m o re c o m m o n a n d widespread than in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties to travel and live in mountains. Sima Chengzhen influenced many famous literati at that time, including Song Zhiwen, Chen Zi'ang, Meng Haoran, Wang Wei and Li Bai. For example, Li Bai was a monk formally trained by Talisman. "Don't feel Journey to Fairyland to five holy mountains is so far, to be fond of traveling to Taoist mountains". Li Bai's poems were the picture of the activity of fairyland excursion, which reflected famous Taoist mountains' attraction of travelling and hiking for literati.
3 Separation and Development of Taoism
Religious dispute of Taoism started after the Southern Song Dynasty and ended in Ming
Dynasty. It made Taoism divide into Zhengyi Dao (正一道) and Quanzhen Dao (全真道), and both of them continued to spread in Ming Dynasty. "Non palace no to teach, non landscape no to remove from worldly affair", famous Taoist mountain got further exploitation, renewal and expansion in this period.
(1) Original temples of famous mountains were generally updated and expanded. Quanzhen Dao emphasizes "to cultivate the moral character and nourish the nature as well as establish the point of view and lead the way for others". First task of missionary work is to build Daoist monasteries. Therefore, on one hand, places where Feng-shui is smooth and trees are flourishing should be chosen to build monasteries in order to cultivate the moral character and nourish the nature. On the other hand, Quanzhen Dao attaches great importance to take over, repair and expansion of the traditional grand Taoist monasteries. For example, the amount of palaces, temples, huts, joss houses and pavilions built by disciple of the faction leaded by Song Defang which belongs to Longmen sect of Quanzhen School is up to 222 in the Southern Song Dynasty.
(2) Unified planning and construction of temple buildings appeared. Taoist mountain landscape paradigms became mature. Emperor Yongle, used to be a seignior, took over the power and became the emperor. In order to flaunt his legal status with "divine right of king", Emperor Yongle claimed that he was protected by Zhenwu. Thus, he built temples to repay the immortal in the Wudang Mountains, which is named after "only Zhenwu can match it". Following the clue of the Taoist story that Zhenwu cultivates immortality, gains the Tao, then flies up to heaven and finally goes back to heavenly palace, the spatial layout is planned in the order of mortal world, celestial mountains and paradise based on Taoist cosmology and cultivating immortality theory. It became a planning paradigm that later Taoist mountain landscape construction followed. A certain amount of Taoist famous mountains not only imitated Wudang Mountains in the aspect of construction and landscape pattern, but also changed their name into "Little Wudang", "Zhenwu Mountains", etc. For instance, Qiyun mountains of Anhui, North Wudang of Lüliang, North Wuadang of Xingtai, Zhenwu Mountains of Xiangyang, Zhenwu Mountains of Yibin, Zhenwu Mountains of Congluoyu, etc.
4 The Gradual Decline Period of Taoism
After the mid-Ming Dynasty, Taoism gradually entered a period of decline, but the enthusiasm of folk religions of Taoism and the transition of the public morals led to massive pilgrimage activities, which promoted the tourism of famous mountains sceneries and the development of local famous Taoist mountains.
Through the development from Tang and Song Dynasties period to the mid and late Ming Dynasty, the custom of pilgrimage came to be a nationwide general phenomenon. It’s a ritual of religion to burn incense and worship the gods, but it had become a pretext for ordinary people to travel since the mid-Ming Dynasty. The civilians didn’t have the same economic strength to visit famous mountains and great rivers frequently as scholar-bureaucrat. The money they had saved so hard in their lifetime may be only for once burning incense far out, which determined the "this incense, one for cultivating blessings, another for enjoying scenery leisurely". Pilgrimaging is an important and almost the only way of increasing social experience, expanding geographical horizons and sightseeing for civilians, especially for women. Because of large-scale pilgrims, relevant tourist and accommodation services had gained rapid development. Temples of famous mountains which opened to the public provided a special reception for pilgrims and visitors, and formed a "the unity of hotel and temple" pattern, private business shops around the very prosperous temples of famous mountains were built adjacently to form a "trading street" or a tourism town, which promoted the tourist construction of scenic spots in mountains.
Because of the political situation, busy seasons, personal economic conditions and health conditions and so on, there were so many pilgrims can only pilgrimage nearby rather than go to the national holy mountains to pilgrimage. Therefore, the temples near the settlements began to thrive and the development and construction of local famous religious mountains was promoted. For example, from late Ming Dynasty to the Qing
Dynasty, with the increasing influence of Zhenwu faith among the people, the temples imitating the Wudang Mountains to worship Zhenwu sprung up. According to incomplete statistics, these local famous mountains of Taoist imitating the Wudang Mountains often named "Little Wudang", "North Wudang", "South Wudang", "Sub Wudang", "Little Peak", "North Peak", "North Little Peak", "West Peak" for mountain name or alias, involving a number of provinces such as Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Guizhou and so on; "Among Famous Mountains in China, eight in ten worship Zhenwu". Moreover, the situation of Mountain Tai was the same. The Temples Worshiping Yuanjun spread throughout China, especially Yuanjun Temple and Mountain Tai Temple in north China. "Now, the greatest gods are Zhenwu in Wudang Mountain and Yuanjun in Mountain Tai", So when ITO Chuta (伊东忠太) came to China, what he saw was describe as "Taoist temples and ordinary temples that belonged to Taoism were all over the country and uncountable", thus he wrote it in his book Chinese Ancient Architecture Decoration (《中国古建筑装饰》) that "We could learn that how deeply Taoism has rooted in people's mind".
5 Conclusion
F r o m t h e a b o v e p e r i o d s o f Ta o i s t development, we can find that Taoist theory and practice are closely related to the early awareness and development of mountain landscape. Taoist development and its social status have a deep effect on the construction and utilization of Taoist mountain landscape. Taoist mountain not only bears the foundation of Taoist ideals, immortal practice, organization development and spread belief, but also is the result of landscape construction, tourism construction and religious construction.
(Editor / LI Min)
Biography:
DU yan, Ph.D., associate professor of College of Horticulture and Forestry Science, Huazhong Agricultural University, research interests: history and theory of landscape architecture (Wuhan, 430070)
① 卿希泰先生主编的《中国道教史》将道教的发生、发展和演变分为“创建和改造”(从张陵创教至魏晋南北朝)、“兴盛和发展”(隋唐至北宋)、“宗派纷起和继续发展”(南宋至明代中叶)、“逐渐衰落”(明中叶以后)4个时期；参见参考文献[49]。
① “乾坤既辟，清浊肇分，融为江河，结为山岳……太史公云：大荒之内，名山五千，其间五岳作镇，十山为佐……大天之内，有洞天三十六，别有日月星辰灵仙宫阙，主御罪福，典录死生。有高真所居，仙王所理。又有海外五岳、三岛、十洲、三十六靖庐、七十二福地、二十四化、四镇诸山”“十洲、三岛、五岳诸山，皆在昆仑之四方，巨海之中，神仙所居，五帝所理，非世人之所到也”，参见参考文献[50]。
② “仙宗十友”包括陈子昂、卢藏用、宋之问、王适、毕构、李白、孟浩然、王维、贺知章、司马承祯共10人。他们并非一个紧凑的集体，而是由后人归纳而成的作为一个历时性展开的具有相似宗教背景的文人群落。
① 三山指以龙虎山、茅山、阁皂山为本山的正一、上清、灵宝三大派，擅符箓祈禳。宋哲宗绍圣四年(1097年)，朝廷下令封以为“经箓三山”，领导了整个江南地区的道教。南宋嘉熙三年(1239年)宋理宗赐封35代天师张可大提举三山符箓，至此江南三大符箓道派统归天师统领，称“三山合一”。
① 武当山遇真宫“玄帝庙赞”碑文，由“河南开封府许昌都”香会组织所立，转引自参考文献[44]157页。